Block cleanup: page reclamation process to reduce garbage collection overhead in dual-programmable nand flash devices

ABSTRACT

According to one general aspect, an apparatus may include a memory, an erasure-based, non-volatile memory, and a processor. The memory may be configured to store a mapping table, wherein the mapping table indicates a rewriteable state of a plurality of memory addresses. The erasure-based, non-volatile memory may be configured to store information, at respective memory addresses, in an encoded format. The encoded format may include more bits than the unencoded version of the information and the encoded format may allow the information be over-written, at least once, without an intervening erase operation. The processor may be configured to perform garbage collection based, at least in part upon, the rewriteable state associated with the respective memory addresses.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATION

This application is a continuation-in-part of, and claims priority under35 U.S.C. §120 to, Application Ser. No. 15/217,964, filed on Jul. 22,2016, which claims the priority benefit, under 35 U.S.C. §119, of U.S.Provisional Application Ser. No. 62/341,584, entitled “MULTI-BIT DATAREPRESENTATION FRAMEWORK TO ENABLE DUAL PROGRAM OPERATION ON SOLID-STATEFLASH DEVICES” filed on May 25, 2016. The subject matter of theseearlier filed applications are hereby incorporated by reference.

This application claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119 to ProvisionalPatent Application Ser. No. 62/409,319, entitled “BLOCK CLEANUP: PAGERECLAMATION PROCESS TO REDUCE GARBAGE COLLECTION OVERHEAD INDUAL-PROGRAMMABLE NAND FLASH DEVICES” filed on Oct. 17, 2016.

The subject matter of this earlier filed application is herebyincorporated by reference.

TECHNICAL FIELD

This description relates to data storage, and more specifically to thereduction of tail latency in erasure-based storage devices.

BACKGROUND

Predictable performance is often an important design goal in severalcloud and datacenter services, including search engines, data analytics,machine learning, and social media. Each of these services tend to beextremely latency sensitive and generally operate under strict servicelevel agreements (SLAs). Specifically, coarse grain metrics like averageresponse time are often not representative of overall performance andworst case latencies are frequently much more of a concern. Variabilityof response times causes high tail latency in components of a service,leading to violation of SLAs and more importantly leading to longerresponse time for users. Tail latency is the latency experienced by somebut very few operations. The longest latency defines, for each service,the end of its tail.

Flash or solid state memories then to have quicker response times thantraditional memory devices. However, because flash memories aregenerally derived from electrically erasable programmable read-onlymemory (EEPROM) technology, their memory cells generally have to beerased before they can be written or re-written to (i.e. flash is notgenerally an update-in-place technology). This causes irregularities inflash performance as externally initiated operation (e.g., reads,writes) may occur when an internally initiated operation (e.g., an eraseoperation, move operation, garbage collection, etc.) is occurring. Thismay cause the externally initiated operation to stall as themaintenance-based operation is being performed. Often these maintenanceoperations (specifically the erase operation) tend to be very slow(comparatively), exacerbating any wait or delay.

Currently, replication is frequently employed to deal with tail latencyinconsistencies. The same memory access may be issued to multiplestorage devices, wherein each storage device is often a mirror of eachother. Frequently, whatever device returns the first result (e.g.,because it is on a different internal maintenance schedule) is thedevice whose result is used. The results from the other devices arediscarded, as no longer important. This generally involves more serversand bandwidth, and is generally wasteful and expensive. Further, thesoftware (e.g., operating system, drivers, etc.) must be complex enoughto handle the parallel nature of the replicated scheme. It may bedesirable to alter the technology to allow for more consistent andpredictable performance.

SUMMARY

According to one general aspect, an apparatus may include a hostinterface, a memory, a processor, and an erasure-based, non-volatilememory. The host interface may receive a write command, wherein thewrite command includes unencoded data. The memory may store a mappingtable, wherein the mapping table indicates a rewriteable state of aplurality of memory addresses. The processor may select a memory addressto store information included by the unencoded data based, at least inpart, upon the rewriteable state of the memory address. Theerasure-based, non-volatile memory may store, at the memory address, theunencoded data's information as encoded data, wherein the encoded dataincludes more bits than the unencoded data and wherein the encoded datacan be over-written with a second unencoded data without an interveningerase operation.

According to another general aspect, a system may include a processorand erasure-based, non-volatile memory device. The processor may beconfigured to transmit a first write command and at least a second writecommand to an erasure-based, non-volatile memory device, wherein thefirst and second write commands each include unique unencoded data. Theerasure-based, non-volatile memory device may be configured to perform,to a single target physical memory address, the first and at least thesecond write commands without an intervening erase operation. Theerasure-based, non-volatile memory device may include an internalprocessor to convert each of the unencoded data to respective at leastfirst encoded data and second encoded data, and update, as part ofperforming each write command, a rewritable state associated with thetarget physical memory address. The erasure-based, non-volatile memorydevice may include non-volatile memory to store, in response to thefirst write command and at the target physical memory address, the firstencoded data; refrain from performing a erase operation to the targetphysical memory address; and store, in response to the second writecommand and at the target physical memory address, the second encodeddata.

According to another general aspect, an apparatus may include aninternal processor, and an erasure-based memory. The internal processormay be configured to: receive a first write command that includes afirst unencoded data, determine a target memory address to store theinformation included in the first unencoded data, convert the firstunencoded data to a first encoded data, store the first encoded data inan erasure-based memory at the target memory address, receive a secondwrite command that includes a second unencoded data, convert the secondunencoded data to a second encoded data, without performing an eraseoperation on the target memory address, store the second encoded data inthe erasure-based memory at the target memory address. The erasure-basedmemory may be configured to store data by flipping bits in aunidirectional fashion, and erase stored data by resetting all of thebits at a memory address to a predetermined state from which the bitsmay be flipped in the unidirectional fashion.

According to one general aspect, an apparatus may include a memory, anerasure-based, non-volatile memory, and a processor. The memory may beconfigured to store a mapping table, wherein the mapping table indicatesa rewriteable state of a plurality of memory addresses. Theerasure-based, non-volatile memory may be configured to storeinformation, at respective memory addresses, in an encoded format. Theencoded format may include more bits than the unencoded version of theinformation and the encoded format may allow the information beover-written, at least once, without an intervening erase operation. Theprocessor may be configured to perform garbage collection based, atleast in part upon, the rewriteable state associated with the respectivememory addresses.

According to another general aspect, a system may include a processor,and an erasure-based, non-volatile memory device. The processor may beconfigured to transmit memory commands to an erasure-based, non-volatilememory device. The erasure-based, non-volatile memory device may beconfigured to perform, to a single target physical memory address, afirst and at least a second write commands without an intervening eraseoperation. The erasure-based, non-volatile memory device may include anon-volatile memory configured to: store the information, at respectivememory addresses, in an encoded format, wherein the encoded formatincludes more bits than the an unencoded version of the information andwherein the encoded format allows the information be over-written, atleast once, without an intervening erase operation, and update, as partof performing each write command, a rewritable state associated with arespective physical memory address. The erasure-based, non-volatilememory device may include an internal processor configured to: performgarbage collection based, at least in part upon, the rewriteable stateassociated with the respective memory addresses.

According to another general aspect, 17. a method may include storinginformation, at respective memory addresses within erasure-based,non-volatile memory, in an encoded format, wherein the encoded formatincludes more bits than the an unencoded version of the information andwherein the encoded format allows the information be over-written, atleast once, without an intervening erase operation. The method mayinclude selecting a victim block of memory addresses to perform at leastpartial garbage collection upon. The method may include determining if,within the victim block, at least one memory address is associated witha rewriteable state that does not require an intervening eraseoperation. The method may include if so, copying the information storedat the victim block's at least one memory address to a second memoryaddress outside of the victim block.

The details of one or more implementations are set forth in theaccompanying drawings and the description below. Other features will beapparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.

A system and/or method for data storage, and more specifically to thereduction of tail latency in erasure-based storage devices,substantially as shown in and/or described in connection with at leastone of the figures, as set forth more completely in the claims.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an example embodiment of a system inaccordance with the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an example embodiment of a data structurein accordance with the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 3a is a diagram of an example embodiment of an encoding scheme inaccordance with the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 3b is a diagram of an example embodiment of an encoding scheme inaccordance with the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 4 is a block diagram of an example embodiment of a data structurein accordance with the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram of an example embodiment of a data structurein accordance with the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram of an example embodiment of a data structurein accordance with the disclosed subject matter.

FIG. 7 is a schematic block diagram of an information processing systemthat may include devices formed according to principles of the disclosedsubject matter.

Like reference symbols in the various drawings indicate like elements.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Various example embodiments will be described more fully hereinafterwith reference to the accompanying drawings, in which some exampleembodiments are shown. The present disclosed subject matter may,however, be embodied in many different forms and should not be construedas limited to the example embodiments set forth herein. Rather, theseexample embodiments are provided so that this disclosure will bethorough and complete, and will fully convey the scope of the presentdisclosed subject matter to those skilled in the art. In the drawings,the sizes and relative sizes of layers and regions may be exaggeratedfor clarity.

It will be understood that when an element or layer is referred to asbeing “on,” “connected to” or “coupled to” another element or layer, itmay be directly on, connected or coupled to the other element or layeror intervening elements or layers may be present. In contrast, when anelement is referred to as being “directly on”, “directly connected to”or “directly coupled to” another element or layer, there are nointervening elements or layers present. Like numerals refer to likeelements throughout. As used herein, the term “and/or” includes any andall combinations of one or more of the associated listed items.

It will be understood that, although the terms first, second, third, andso on may be used herein to describe various elements, components,regions, layers and/or sections, these elements, components, regions,layers and/or sections should not be limited by these terms. These termsare only used to distinguish one element, component, region, layer, orsection from another region, layer, or section. Thus, a first element,component, region, layer, or section discussed below could be termed asecond element, component, region, layer, or section without departingfrom the teachings of the present disclosed subject matter.

Spatially relative terms, such as “beneath”, “below”, “lower”, “above”,“upper” and the like, may be used herein for ease of description todescribe one element or feature's relationship to another element(s) orfeature(s) as illustrated in the figures. It will be understood that thespatially relative terms are intended to encompass differentorientations of the device in use or operation in addition to theorientation depicted in the figures. For example, if the device in thefigures is turned over, elements described as “below” or “beneath” otherelements or features would then be oriented “above” the other elementsor features. Thus, the exemplary term “below” may encompass both anorientation of above and below. The device may be otherwise oriented(rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relativedescriptors used herein interpreted accordingly.

The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particularexample embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of thepresent disclosed subject matter. As used herein, the singular forms“a”, “an” and “the” are intended to include the plural forms as well,unless the context clearly indicates otherwise. It will be furtherunderstood that the terms “comprises” and/or “comprising,” when used inthis specification, specify the presence of stated features, integers,steps, operations, elements, and/or components, but do not preclude thepresence or addition of one or more other features, integers, steps,operations, elements, components, and/or groups thereof.

Example embodiments are described herein with reference tocross-sectional illustrations that are schematic illustrations ofidealized example embodiments (and intermediate structures). As such,variations from the shapes of the illustrations as a result, forexample, of manufacturing techniques and/or tolerances, are to beexpected. Thus, example embodiments should not be construed as limitedto the particular shapes of regions illustrated herein but are toinclude deviations in shapes that result, for example, frommanufacturing. For example, an implanted region illustrated as arectangle will, typically, have rounded or curved features and/or agradient of implant concentration at its edges rather than a binarychange from implanted to non-implanted region. Likewise, a buried regionformed by implantation may result in some implantation in the regionbetween the buried region and the surface through which the implantationtakes place. Thus, the regions illustrated in the figures are schematicin nature and their shapes are not intended to illustrate the actualshape of a region of a device and are not intended to limit the scope ofthe present disclosed subject matter.

Unless otherwise defined, all terms (including technical and scientificterms) used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by oneof ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosed subject matterbelongs. It will be further understood that terms, such as those definedin commonly used dictionaries, should be interpreted as having a meaningthat is consistent with their meaning in the context of the relevant artand will not be interpreted in an idealized or overly formal senseunless expressly so defined herein.

Hereinafter, example embodiments will be explained in detail withreference to the accompanying drawings.

FIG. 1 is a block diagram of an example embodiment of a system 100 inaccordance with the disclosed subject matter. In various embodiments,the system 100 may include a computing device, such as, for example, alaptop, desktop, workstation, personal digital assistant, smartphone,tablet, and other appropriate computers, and so on or a virtual machineor virtual computing device thereof.

In one embodiment, the system 100 may include a processor 102 configuredto execute instructions, and more specifically in this case issue memoryaccess commands (e.g., read, write, etc.). In the illustratedembodiment, the processor 102 may execute one or more host applications112 or software programs. In such an embodiment, the host applications112 may access the data described herein. Specifically, in theillustrated embodiment, the host application 112 or processor 102 maytransmit a write command 114 to the non-volatile memory device (NVMD)106.

In the illustrated embodiment, the system 100 may include a non-volatilememory device (NVMD) 106, such as, for example, a flash drive, a solidstate drive (SSD), etc. Although, it is understood that the above aremerely a few illustrative examples to which the disclosed subject matteris not limited.

In the illustrated embodiment, the NVMD 106 may include a storage devicethat requires memory cells 140, pages 142, and/or blocks 144 to beerased or reset to a known value before being re-written. In someinstances (e.g., magnetic memories, hard drive disks (HDDs), etc.) datamay be written and then re-written over and over again without the needfor an intervening maintenance operation. When data is changed on such adisk the series of operations generally occur in the following sequence:an initial writing of data to a memory address, and then a secondwriting of new data to the same memory address. In these instancesstored bits may generally be flipped in both directions or in abi-directional fashion (e.g., from high to low, and low to high). If thesecond write operation flips bits in either direction, the storagetechnology supports this and no special steps need occur.

However, in the illustrated embodiment, the storage device 106 may bebased upon a technology in which write operations (or in the parlance ofthe technology “programs”) involve flipping bits in only one directionor a unidirectional fashion (e.g., from high to low). The disadvantageof such a technology is that any future write operations may not “reset”a bit to the un-flipped state (e.g., a low to high write may not bepossible). In such an embodiment, the traditional procedure is to havean intermediate operation known as “erase” that resets the stored bitsto an initial state (e.g., flips all the bits of the memory address tothe high state), before a second or subsequent writing of new data(e.g., flipping the data from high to low) can occur. In such anembodiment, the normal series of operations are: a first write to thememory address, an erase (or reset) to the memory address that placesthe memory address back in the initial state, and then a second write tothe memory address may occur. In this context, the term “erasure-based”refers to a memory or storage device that employs a technology thatrequires this intervening erase operation. In various embodiments,examples of “erasure-based” storage technologies may include flash,NAND, or SSD devices; although, it is understood that the above aremerely a few illustrative examples to which the disclosed subject matteris not limited.

In the illustrated embodiment, the NVMD 106 may ultimately store data ina non-volatile manner in non-volatile memory cells 140. These memorycells 140 may each store a bit of data or multiple bits, depending uponthe threshold schemes used. These memory cells 140 may be arranged inpages 142, which may in turn be grouped into blocks 144. In theillustrated embodiment, writes may occur at the page-level, while eraseoperations may occur at the block-level. It is understood that the aboveis merely one illustrative example to which the disclosed subject matteris not limited.

In the illustrated embodiment, the processor 102 may issue a writecommand 114 to the NVMD 106. In such an embodiment, the write command114 may include a memory address (not shown) and data 118 to be writtento the NVMD 106. In various embodiments, the data 118 may be stored, atleast temporarily in a volatile memory 104. In the illustratedembodiment, the volatile memory 104 may be included by the system 100,and may include dynamic random access memory (DRAM) or system memory. Inanother embodiment, the memory 104 may include static RAM (SRAM) and maybe included as a cache of the processor 102. It is understood that theabove are merely a few illustrative examples to which the disclosedsubject matter is not limited.

In the illustrated embodiment, the data 118 may be stored in the typicalbinary fashion employed by computers or in a format that is generallythought of as unencoded (from the point of view of the NVMD 106). Insuch an embodiment, each bit of information may be represented by onebit of unencoded data 118. In various embodiments, the unencoded data118 may be a numerical value represented in mathematical binary form. Inanother embodiment, the unencoded data 118 may be represented inbinary-coded decimal (BCD) format, binary code (e.g., 4-8 bits of ASCIIor Unicode text), Gray code, or another format employed by the processor102 to transfer data. As described below, the unencoded data 118 maydiffer from the encoded data 158 in that the NVMD 106 may add an extralevel of encoding to the unencoded data 118 (e.g., that shown in FIGS.3a and 3b ).

In the illustrated embodiment, the write command 114 may be received bythe host interface circuit 120 of the NVMD 106. In such an embodiment,the host interface circuit 120 may be a circuit configured tocommunicate between the NVMD 106 and the processor 102 via acommunications protocol (e.g., serial advanced technology attachment(SATA), etc.).

The NVMD 106 may include a NVMD or internal processor 150 to performoperations related to the NVMD 106. The NVMD 106 may also include a NVMDbuffer 152 to temporality store data used by the NVMD processor 150. Insome embodiments, the NVMD buffer 152 may include a volatile memory.

In the illustrated embodiment, the write command 114 may be processed bythe NVMD processor 150. The write command 114 may include a virtual orlogical memory address that needs to be translated to a physical memoryaddress. To do this the NVMD processor 150 may make use of a mappingtable 132. The mapping table 132 may be stored by an object or flashtranslation layer (FTL) or memory 130 that is included by the NVMD 106.In various embodiments, the object translation memory 132 may include avolatile memory. It is understood that the above is merely oneillustrative example to which the disclosed subject matter is notlimited.

In the illustrated embodiment, the mapping table 132 may include a fieldthat indicates, for each memory address in the mapping table 132, arewritable (RW) state 138 that is associated with that address. Asdescribed above, in the traditional erasure-based storage technology,every write operation must be followed by an erase operation before newdata can be written (re-written) to the same memory address. However, inthe illustrated embodiment, this erase step or operation may be avoidedor at least delayed, and subsequent re-writes to the same address may beperformed in certain circumstances. The rewritable state 138 mayindicate whether or not the erase step must or is likely to be performedbefore a new write to the memory address can occur.

FIG. 2 is a block diagram of an example embodiment of a mapping table ordata structure 200 in accordance with the disclosed subject matter. Invarious embodiments, the data structure 200 may be included in a singletable, as shown. In another embodiment, the data structure 200 may beincluded in multiple tables.

In the illustrated embodiment, the mapping table 200 may include threecolumns: logical page address (LPA) 292, physical page address (PPA)294, and rewritable status 296. In the illustrated embodiment, eachmemory address is represented by a page address. In such an embodiment,the write command may have included a page-level memory address. Inanother embodiment, the NVMD processor may have already translated alower level (e.g., byte-level) memory address to a page-level memoryaddress.

In the illustrated embodiment, six rows are shown (rows 201, 202, 203,204, 205, and 206). However, it is understood that the mapping table 200may include any number of rows or entries. It is understood that theabove is merely one illustrative example to which the disclosed subjectmatter is not limited. Likewise, it is understood that the addressesshown are merely illustrative examples to which the disclosed subjectmatter is not limited.

In such an embodiment, the NVMD processor may use the mapping table 200to convert the logical or virtual address given in the write command toa physical address where the data may actually be stored. However,before the NVMD processor writes the data to the physical address, theNVMD processor may check to see if the physical address is capable ofbeing written to.

In a traditional erasure-based scheme each physical address was assignedone of the two general states: free/un-written, orpreviously-written-to. In various embodiments, the“previously-written-to” state was frequently divided in to in-use orvalid, or not-in-use or invalid. If an address was marked as free, datacould be written to it without concern. If the address was marked aspreviously-written-to, the NVMD processor had to make a decision. Eitherthe NVMD processor could write the data to another, free address (andchange the mapping table accordingly), or the NVMD processor could causethe address to be erased (setting the address as “free”), and then thenew data could be written into the now free address.

In the illustrated embodiment, the each physical address may beassociated with one of at least three (four shown) rewritable states:free or un-written, rewritable or Valid-I, and potentially-rewritable.In the illustrated embodiment, the potentially-rewritable state may besub-divided into Valid-II and Invalid. In the illustrated embodiment,the Valid-I and Valid-II states indicate that the data stored in therespective memory address is still being used by the host processor orCPU. Whereas, the Invalid state indicates that the data is no longerbeing used by the host processor or CPU. In another embodiment, therewriteable states may include an Invalid-I state (that indicates thedata is unused but rewriteable) and an Invalid-II state (that indicatesthe data is unused and is only potentially-rewriteable), similarly tothe Valid-I and Valid-II states. It is understood that the above aremerely a few illustrative examples to which the disclosed subject matteris not limited.

Returning to FIG. 1, in this initial example the mapping table 132 mayreturn the physical address and a rewritable state 138 that indicatesthat the address has not been written to (e.g., un-written or free). Insuch an embodiment, the NVMD processor 150 may proceed to write thedata, or more specifically the information included in the unencodeddata 118, to the physical address.

In the illustrated embodiment, the NVMD processor 150 may convert theunencoded data 118 to a non-traditional encoding scheme (the encodeddata 158), prior to storing it (or the information the unencoded data1118 includes) to the non-volatile memory cells 140 or page 142. In theillustrated embodiment, the encoded data 158 may be encoded in such away that it takes up more space within the memory cells 140, but itallows for greater re-writ ability (without the intervening eraseoperation) than if it had been stored in the unencoded data 118'straditional format.

As described above, in erasure-based storage technologies bits may oftenonly be or flipped in one direction (e.g., from high to low) without anexpensive operation to reset the bits the other way (e.g., from low backto high). In the illustrated embodiment, the encoded data 158 may beencoded using a scheme in which the values or information stored in theencoded data 158 may be changed multiple times, while still adhering tothe limitation imposed by unidirectional changes in the cell 140 s′voltage thresholds (e.g., from high to low). In such an embodiment,number of erase operations may be reduced (as two or more writes mayoccur between erasures instead of only one). Therefore, the overallresponse time and processing efficiencies of the NVDM 106 may beincreased. Even if the storage capabilities may be decreased. It isunderstood that while unidirectional cell voltage changes are discussedas an embodiment in which the disclosed subject matter is useful, thedisclosed subject matter is not limited to technologies with thatlimitation.

FIG. 3a is a diagram of an example embodiment of an encoding scheme 300in accordance with the disclosed subject matter. In the illustratedembodiment, the encoding scheme 300 may show various (e.g., four)numerical values of information that may be stored in the NVMD. In theillustrated embodiment, the encoding scheme 300 may also show various(e.g., eight) possible ways the numerical values may be encoded (i.e.symbols). It is understood that the above is merely one illustrativeexample to which the disclosed subject matter is not limited.

The encoding scheme 300 shows three states or times in which a group ofmemory cells (e.g., three cells) may be written to or altered by theNVMD processor. In the first state 301 the cells may be erased or resetto their highest potential state. In the illustrated embodiment, thatstate is ‘111’ or in decimal notation the numerical value 3.Traditionally, the plain binary encoding scheme would have stored thenumerical value 3 using 2-bits as ‘11’. However, as described above, thedisclosed subject matter may trade storage space for re-writ ability andemploy 3-bits to store the numerical value 3.

The second state or time 302 shows all the possible values that may bestored by the memory cells after an initial write operation has beenperformed. As 2-bits of traditional binary information is being stored,the memory cells may store decimal values 3, 2, 1, or 0 (shown in themiddle block of each possible storage option). Traditionally, thesewould have been stored as the unencoded 2-bit values 11, 10, 01, or 00,respectively (shown in the right block of each possible storage option).However, in the illustrated embodiment, the encoded symbols employ3-bits per value and the numerical value or information written to thecells are stored as the symbols 111, 110, 101, or 011, respectively(shown in the left block of each possible storage option).

The third state or time 303 shows all the possible numerical values andencoded symbols that may be stored by the memory cells after a secondwrite operation has been performed. Immediately one will note that asecond write operation is possible without the need for an interveningerase operation. Traditionally, once the second state 302 occurred anerase operation was required to reset the memory cells back to the firststate 301 (or its traditional unencoded equivalent).

In the illustrated embodiment, each of the values written in the secondstate 302 may be re-written to a new value without flipping any bits ina way that is prohibitive given the erasure-based storage technology(e.g., from low to high). For example, if the value 3 (111) was storedduring the second state 302, the third state becomes a simple repeat ofthe transition from the first state 301 to the second state 302. Thememory cells may be re-written to 111, 110, 101, or 011. If the value 2(110) was stored during the second state 302, during the third state 303the values 110 (2), 100 (0), 010 (1), or 000 (3) may be written withoutan intervening erase operation. If the value 1 (101) was stored duringthe second state 302, during the third state 303 the values 101 (1), 100(0), 001 (2), or 000 (3) may be written without an intervening eraseoperation. If the value 0 (011) was stored during the second state 302,during the third state 303 the values 011 (0), 010 (1), 001 (2), or 000(3) may be written without an intervening erase operation. It isunderstood that the above are merely a few illustrative examples towhich the disclosed subject matter is not limited.

In the illustrated embodiment, the encoding scheme 300 may employ 8different potential encodings or symbols to represent 4 numericalvalues. Decimal 3 may be encoded as either 111 or 000. Decimal 2 may beencoded as either 110 or 001. Decimal 1 may be encoded as either 101 or010. Decimal 0 may be encoded as either 011 or 100.

Also, one will note that the encodings or symbols in group 312 (i.e.,111, 110, 101, and 001) may be re-written again without the need for anintervening erase operation (as illustrated by the transition from state302 to 303). Whereas the encodings or symbols in group 314 (i.e., 100,010, 001, and 000) do not immediately display this flexibility.

FIG. 3b is a diagram of an example embodiment of an encoding scheme 300in accordance with the disclosed subject matter. FIG. 3b continues thepossible encoding options or possibilities for one example embodiment toa fourth state 304. In such an embodiment, a second re-write operation(a third write operation) may be performed or may be attempted.

If a second re-write operation is attempted and the memory cells areencoded according to the group 312, the same encoding transitionsdisplaced between states 302 and 303 may be performed. The arrowsdisplaying the encoding transitions between states 303 and 304 are notshown as they are the same as between 302 and 303 (as the initialencodings are the same) and the arrows would obscure the point of FIG.3b . As long as the memory cells are encoded with the symbols in group312, the memory cells may be written from any initial decimal value toany other decimal value (as encoded in groups 312 or 314). In such anembodiment, when a memory address includes cells encoded according togroup 312 the memory address may be considered rewritable.

Conversely, when the memory cells are encode with one of the symbols ingroup 314 the ability to re-write the cells becomes more limited. Asillustrated by FIG. 3b , most of the encodings in group 314 may only bere-written to one of two values. The 000 encoding may only be re-writtento one value, itself (000). The memory cells, in state 303, wherealready set to symbols in which most of the bits were flipped (i.e.,from high to low) and therefore the symbols cannot be changed to many ofthe other symbols without an intervening erase operation (resetting thecells to 111). In such an embodiment, when a memory address includescells encoded according to group 314 the memory address may beconsidered only potentially-rewritable.

In various embodiments, a memory address that includes memory cells thatare only in the first state 301 may be associated with a rewritablestate of Free. In such an embodiment, a memory address that includesmemory cells that are encoded with the group 312 may be associated witha rewritable state of rewritable, Valid-I or Invalid-I (according to theembodiment and whether the memory address is currently active or in useby the processor). In such an embodiment, a memory address that includesmemory cells that are encoded with the group 314 may be associated witha rewritable state of potentially-rewritable, Valid-II, Invalid, orInvalid-II (according to the embodiment and whether the memory addressis currently active or in use by the processor). It is understood thatthe above are merely a few illustrative examples to which the disclosedsubject matter is not limited.

Returning to FIG. 1, in the illustrated embodiment, the NVMD 106 mayreceive a second write command 114. This write command 114 may be to thesame memory address as the first write command 114. Traditionally, asdescribed above, the NVMD processor 150 would have selected a newphysical address to write to and/or would have erased the contents ofthe old physical address. However, in the illustrated embodiment, theNVMD processor 150 may check the mapping table 132 to convert thelogical address to a physical address, and to determine the rewritablestate 138 of the physical address. In this instance, the rewriteablestate 138 will be one that indicates the memory address is able to bere-written without an intervening erase operation (e.g., Valid-I, etc.).The first write operation would have left the memory cells used to storethe encoded data 158 in one of the rewritable encodings or symbols shownin group 312 of FIG. 3 a.

The NVMD processor 150 will encode the unencoded data 118 to the properencoded data 158 (as shown in FIG. 3a by the transition from the secondstate 302 to the third state 303). The new encoded data 158 may bestored in the memory cells 140. The NVMD processor 150 may change therewritable state 138 to reflect the new state of the encoded data 158.In some embodiments, once any transition from the second state 302 tothe third state 303 occurs, the rewriteable state 138 may be changed toindicate that the memory address is only potentially-rewriteable (e.g.,Valid-II, etc.), as the data may be encoded using the encodings ofgroups 312 and/or 314. In another embodiment, the NVMD processor 150 maymore closely monitor what encodings were used to create the encoded data158 and mark the rewritable state 138 as rewritable (e.g., Valid-I) ifonly the group 312 encodings were used, or as potentially-rewritable(e.g., Valid-II) if any of the group 314 encodings were used. It isunderstood that the above are merely a few illustrative examples towhich the disclosed subject matter is not limited.

In this example embodiment, the second write command 114 will (forillustrative purposes) cause the rewritable state to bepotentially-rewriteable (e.g., Valid-II). It is understood that theabove is merely one illustrative example to which the disclosed subjectmatter is not limited.

Eventually, a third write command 114 to the same memory address may beissued. Traditionally, as described above, the NVMD processor 150 wouldhave selected a new physical address to write to and/or would haveerased the contents of the old physical address. However, in theillustrated embodiment, the NVMD processor 150 may check the mappingtable 132 to convert the logical address to a physical address, and todetermine the rewritable state 138 of the physical address. In thisinstance, the rewriteable state 138 will be one that indicates thememory address is only potentially able to be re-written without anintervening erase operation (e.g., Valid-II, etc.). The second writeoperation may have left the encoded data 158 with one of the symbolsshown in group 314 of FIG. 3 a.

In the illustrated embodiment, the NVMD processor 150 may determine whatthe appropriate encoding of the unencoded data 118 is, and if that newencoded data 158 is one that can be reached from the encoding symbolsused by the second write operation's encoded data 158. As describedabove, this may be seen in FIG. 3b in the transition from the thirdstate 303 to the fourth state 304. As the encodings of group 314 mayonly transition to two or less numerical values, it is possible that asubsequent write command (in this case the third write command 114) mayinclude numerical values that are unobtainable from the given symbolsused in the existing encoded data 158.

In some embodiments, the NVMD processor 150 may simply compare the newencoded data 158 to the old encoded data 158 and determine if thetransition is possible (e.g., can all the needed bits be flipped?). Ifit is possible, the new encoded data 158 may be written to the physicalmemory address. If it is not possible, the new encoded data 158 may bewritten to a new physical memory address. The mapping table 132 may bechanged to point to the new physical memory address, and the oldphysical memory address may be marked as invalid and available forerasure.

However, in the illustrated embodiment, the NVMD 106 may include awatermark table 134 (stored in the memory 130). The watermark table 134may include, for each used physical memory address or for eachpotentially-rewritable memory address, a watermark that indicates thedegree that the potentially-rewritable memory address is actuallyrewritable. In some embodiments, this watermark may include a number offlip-able bits or is stored at the physical address.

The NVMD processor 150 may determine the number of bits in the oldencoded data 158 that must be flipped to create the new encoded data 158and compare that to the address's watermark in the watermark table 134.For example, if the new encoded data 158 would require that 10 bits ofthe old encoded data 158 be flipped and the target memory address onlyhas 9 bits that may be flipped (without an erase operation), the NVMDprocessor 150 may quickly determine that the memory address is notactually rewritable. Conversely, if the target memory address had 10 ormore flappable bits, the NVMD processor 150 may perform a more detailedanalysis, as described above. The processor determines the number of 1sin the new data and compares it with watermark in the watermark table.If the number of 1s in the new data is 10, and the watermark shows thatthe number of 1s (number of flappable bits) in the old data is 9, we canquickly say the old data cannot be replaced by the new data. Conversely,. . .

FIG. 4 is a block diagram of an example embodiment of a watermark tableor data structure 400 in accordance with the disclosed subject matter.In various embodiments, the data structure 400 may be included in aseparate table, as shown. In another embodiment, the data structure 400may be included as part of another table (e.g., the mapping table).

In the illustrated embodiment, the watermark table 400 may include twocolumns: physical page address (PPA) 494, and number of flip-able bits496. In the illustrated embodiment, each memory address is representedby a page address. In such an embodiment, the write command may haveincluded a page-level memory address. In another embodiment, the NVMDprocessor may have already translated a lower level (e.g., byte-level)memory address to to page-level memory address.

In the illustrated embodiment, six rows are shown (rows 401, 402, 403,404, 405, and 406) for each of the memory addresses shown in the mappingtable 200 of FIG. 2. However, it is understood that the watermark table400 may include any number of rows or entries. In another embodiment,only memory addresses that are associated with the “potentiallyrewritable” (e.g., Valid-II or Invalid) rewritable state may beincluded. Using the example shown in FIG. 2, this embodiment wouldinclude the rows 403, 404, and 406 as those addresses are associatedwith the rewritable states Valid-II and Invalid. It is understood thatthe above is merely one illustrative example to which the disclosedsubject matter is not limited.

Returning to FIG. 1, despite the illustrated embodiment's ability toperform multiple writes (to the same address) without intervening eraseoperations, garbage collection (GC) operations may still be desirable.In such an embodiment, the NVMD processor 150 may perform garbagecollection in a manner that takes into account the rewritable state 138of the various memory addresses.

In various embodiments, write operations may be performed at thepage-level, that is, pages 142 are written to individually. But, eraseoperations and garbage collection operations (which often involveerasures) may occur at the block-level, that is, an entire block 144 maybe erased at once. It is understood that the above is merely oneillustrative example to which the disclosed subject matter is notlimited.

In the illustrated embodiment, the NVMD processor 150 may maintain anumber of garbage collection or page-use counters 136 (stored in thememory 130) to help determine which blocks 144 should be erased andwhich blocks 144 should be kept. In such an embodiment, the NVMDprocessor 150 may count the number of Valid or in-use pages 142 perblock 144. In the illustrated embodiment, the NVMD processor 150 maycount each Valid-I or rewritable page twice, and each Valid-II orpotentially-rewritable page only once. The sum of these page counts maybe taken for each block 144. The block 144 with the lowest counter 136value or a counter 136 with a value below a threshold value may then betargeted for garbage collection. In such an embodiment, pages 142 thatmay easily be rewritten may be less likely to be collected or erased.For example, Valid-I pages may be less likely to be erased than Valid-IIor Invalid pages.

In one embodiment, the counting of potentially-rewritable or rewritablepages 142 may not be limited to Valid pages 142 but may also be extendedto Invalid pages 142. In such an embodiment, Invalid pages 142 may begiven a lower count value. In yet another embodiment, a differentcounting scheme may be employed (e.g., one based upon the watermarkvalues, etc.). It is understood that the above are merely a fewillustrative examples to which the disclosed subject matter is notlimited.

FIG. 5 is a block diagram of an example embodiment of a portion of thenon-volatile memory or data structure 500 in accordance with thedisclosed subject matter. In various embodiments, the data structure 500shows how garbage collection may operate.

As described above, in various embodiments, an Invalid page may includestale data or information. As described above, in some embodiments, theNVMD may track whether or not the Invalid pages are capable of beingre-written without the need for erasure (e.g., Invalid-I, Invalid-II,etc.).

Traditionally, garbage collection occurs when a block or group of pagesis selected for erasure. In such an embodiment, this block may bereferred to as a victim block. If the victim block includes valid data,the NVMD's processor may move that data to pages or memory addressesoutside of the victim block, and then erase the victim block. Thesenewly moved pages, in the traditional systems, have to be moved toerased or Free pages. This lowers the efficiency of the garbagecollection process.

In various embodiments, if the traditional form of garbage collectionwas to be combined with the rewritable encoding scheme described herein,the opportunity to reuse or write Valid-I pages (or even some Valid-IIpages) may be lost, as all pages in a victim block are traditionallyerased during garbage collection. In some embodiments, it may bedifficult to find victim blocks without Valid-I or rewriteable pages.For example pages that include cold data (i.e., data writteninfrequently) may often include only Valid-I or Invalid-I data.Conversely, hot data (i.e., data accessed frequently) may include bothValid I and Valid-II pages. In the illustrated embodiment, a form ofpartial garbage collection may be employed to make use of the abilityfor the encoded data to be rewritten without requiring an interveningerase operation.

In the illustrated embodiment, the data structure 500 includes threetime periods 591, 592, and 593. The first time period 591 may be a firststate when the garbage collection process has begun. The second timeperiod 592 may be a second state when the garbage collection process hascompleted. The third time period 593 may be a third state when newinformation has been written to the NVMD.

In the illustrated embodiment, the data structure 500 may include aBlock A that includes the memory pages or addresses 501, 502, 503, 504,505, and 506; although, it is understood that the number of pages in ablock is merely an illustrative example to which the disclosed subjectmatter is not limited. The data structure 500 may also include memorypages or addresses 507 and 508 which are not included or are outside ofthe Block A (e.g., in an unillustrated Block B or C, etc.).

In such an embodiment at time 591, the pages 501 and 505 may includedata or information associated with the rewriteable state Valid-I. Pages502, 503, 504, 506, 507, and 508 may all include data or informationassociated with the rewriteable state Invalid. In various embodiments,the NVMD may or may not keep track of whether Invalid pages may or maynot be rewritten without erasure (e.g., Invalid-I, Invalid-II, etc.).

In such an embodiment, the NVMD (e.g., the internal processor) mayselect Block A as the victim block. In one embodiment, it may check ordetermine if any Valid-I pages are included in the victim block. If not,the NVMD may simply proceed with the step of erasing the whole block.However, in the illustrated embodiment, Block A does include the twoValid-I pages 501 and 505 (associated with LPAs X1 and X2,respectively).

In such an embodiment, the NVMD may move the information stored in pages501 and 505 to pages outside the victim block (Block A). In theillustrated embodiment, the information in page 501 may be moved to page507, and the information in page 505 may be moved to page 508. In theillustrated embodiment, the pages 507 and 508 may already be erased ormay be erased prior to being written to with the moved information. Insuch an embodiment, the mapping table may indicate that the rewritablestates of pages 507 and 508 are both Valid-I. Also, their LPAs may beremapped or re-associated with the new PPAs of pages 507 and 508.

In the illustrated embodiment, the pages 501 and 505 may be marked asFree. Traditionally, these pages would be erased. However, as theencoding scheme described herein (or a similar one) allows these pagesto be rewritten without an intervening erasure operation, that step maybe skipped. In the illustrated embodiment, the NVMD may mark them asFree but may employ a variation of the Free state (e.g., Free-I) thatindicates that page has been written to at least once without the needfor an erase operation. This Free-I rewritable state may be similar tothe Valid-I or Invalid-I states. In some embodiments, the Free-I statemay be equivalent to the Invalid-I state. In another embodiment, Free-Iand Invalid-I may have different meanings, but a similar rewritableability. It is understood that the above are merely a few illustrativeexamples to which the disclosed subject matter is not limited.

In the illustrated embodiment, the pages may simply be left as Invalid(e.g., pages 502, 503, 504, 506, etc.). Time 592 shows the state of thememory pages after the partial garbage collection process has completed.However, in some embodiments, the other pages (e.g., pages 502, 503,504, and 506) may be erased. The data structure of FIG. 6 illustrates adifferent embodiment. It is understood that the above are merely a fewillustrative examples to which the disclosed subject matter is notlimited.

In various embodiments, new data may be written to the NVMD. Asdescribed above, the new data or information may come into the NVMD inan unencoded format. It is understood that the term “unencoded” may berelative term compared to the encoding scheme illustrated in FIGS. 3a &3 b, and may indicate that the data is merely not encoded according tothe rewritable encoding scheme described herein. In various embodiments,the information may be encoded in a traditional scheme and thenre-encoded to the rewritable encoding scheme (e.g., that of FIGS. 3a & 3b, as described above) before being stored in the NVMD.

In the illustrated embodiment, a first piece of new information(associated with LPA X3) may be written into page 501. The newinformation may be encoded according to the rewritable format. However,as the page 501 was previously written to and not erased, the rewritablestate of the new information may be Valid-II or merely potentiallyrewritable (as opposed to fully rewritable). The same may happen withpage 505 and the LPA X4. Time 593 illustrates the state of Block A afternew information has been written to it (note: pages 507 and 508 havebeen removed from the illustration in order to simply the figure).

In various embodiments, the selection of the victim block (e.g., BlockA) may include a Selection phase or step of the garbage collection. Inanother embodiment, the determination of the existence of rewritablepages may include a Determination or Validation phase or step of thegarbage collection. In some embodiments, the removal of the rewritablepages may include a Block Cleanup phase or step of the garbagecollection. In some embodiments, the erasure of any non-rewritable pagesmay include an Erasure phase or step of the garbage collection.

FIG. 6 is a block diagram of an example embodiment of a portion of theNVMD or data structure 600 in accordance with the disclosed subjectmatter. In various embodiments, the data structure 600 shows how garbagecollection may operate.

In the illustrated embodiment, the data structure 600 includes threetime periods 691, 692, and 693. The first time period 691 may be a firststate when the garbage collection process has begun. The second timeperiod 692 may be a second state when the garbage collection process hascompleted. The third time period 693 may be a third state when newinformation has been written to the NVMD.

In the illustrated embodiment, the data structure 600 may include aBlock A that includes the memory pages or addresses 501, 502, 503, 504,505, and 506; although, it is understood that the number of pages in ablock is merely an illustrative example to which the disclosed subjectmatter is not limited. The data structure 600 may also include memorypages or addresses 507, 508, and 509 which are not included or areoutside of the Block A (e.g., in an unillustrated Block B or C, etc.).

In such an embodiment at time 691, the pages 501 and 505 may includedata or information associated with the rewriteable state Valid-I. Page503 may include data or information associated with the rewriteablestate Valid-II. Pages 502, 504, 506, 507, and 508 may all include dataor information associated with the rewriteable state Invalid. In theillustrated embodiment, the NVMD may keep track of whether Invalid pagesmay or may not be rewritten without erasure (e.g., Invalid-I,Invalid-II, etc.).

In such an embodiment, the NVMD (e.g., the internal processor) mayselect Block A as the victim block. In one embodiment, it may check ordetermine if any Valid-I pages are included in the victim block. If not,the NVMD may simply proceed with the step of moving any valid data(e.g., Valid-II data) and then erasing the whole block. However, in theillustrated embodiment, Block A does include the two Valid-I pages 501and 505 (associated with LPAs X1 and X2, respectively).

In the illustrated embodiment, the NVMD may move the information frompage 501 to page 507. In this instance page 507 may be associated withan Invalid-I rewritable state. As such, the writing of the LPA X1 datain page 507 may turn it to the Valid-II rewritable state.

Conversely, the information from page 505 may be moved to page 508. Inthe illustrated embodiment, page 508 may be associated with therewritable state Invalid-II, meaning that the data may be rewritablewithout an intervening erasure operation but may be not. In theillustrated embodiment, page 508 may be erased prior to the LPA X2information being written to it. In such an embodiment, the rewritablestate of page 508 may be Valid-I. Had the data allowed for the data tobe written without an intervening erase, the erasure operation couldhave been skipped and the rewritable state could have been set toValid-II.

In another unillustrated embodiment, an Invalid-II block (again notillustrated) may be re-written by the data of a Valid-I page (e.g.,Block 501 or 505). In such an embodiment, if the Invalid-II block wasable to be re-written with the information from the Valid-I block, thestate of the block may be changed from Invalid-II page to Valid-II. Itis understood that the above are merely a few illustrative examples towhich the disclosed subject matter is not limited.

In the illustrated embodiment, the entire victim block (Block A) may becleared or freed during the garbage collection procedure. (This isopposed to the embodiment of FIG. 5 in which the victim block onlyexperienced partial garbage collection.) In such an embodiment, theinformation stored in page 503 (Valid-II and LPA X0) may be moved fromthe victim block. The information may be moved to page 509 that has astate of Free-0.

In the illustrated embodiment, the NVMD may include two or more Freestates. A Free state may indicate that data may be written to aparticular page without the need for an immediate erasure. Therewritable state Free-0 may indicate that the page is in a pristinestate, un-written, or recently erased. The rewritable state Free-I mayindicate that the page has been written to at least once, but may berewritten to without the need for an intervening erase operation(similar to Valid-I or Invalid-I). It is understood that the above aremerely a few illustrative examples to which the disclosed subject matteris not limited.

In such an embodiment, the page 509 may be associated with therewritable state of Free-0 and may be written to immediately. Therefore,after the LPA X0 information has been encoded into page 509, it may havea rewritable state of Valid-I.

In some embodiments, the entire Block A may physically be erased and allpages 502, etc.) may be reset to the Free-0 state. In anotherembodiment, a quick freeing of the Block A may occur without theintervening Erasure step. In such an embodiment, the pages may be markeda Free (or a variant thereof) but may not be erased. This may occur ifthe garbage collection determines that a contiguous and free block ofmemory is advantageous but the step of erasing the information can beskipped. In such an embodiment, not all pages may be set to the Free-0state.

In the illustrated embodiment, the Invalid pages of Block A (e.g., pages502, 504, and 506) may be re-categorized as Free. In some embodiments,pages that are associated with a rewritable state that allows fornon-erasure (e.g., Invalid-I such as page 506) may be re-categorized asFree-I and not erased. Whereas pages that are associated with rewritablestates that require or may require an intervening erasure (e.g.,Invalid-II such as pages 502 and 504) may be erased and then marked asFree-0. Time 692 shows the state of the memory pages after the garbagecollection process.

Time 693 illustrates the state of the memory pages after new informationhas been written to Block A (again pages outside Block A are no longershown). Pages associated with the Free-I state (e.g., pages 501 and 505)may store information that is then marked or associated with therewritable state Valid-II. Conversely, pages associated with the Free-0state (e.g., page 502) may store information that is then marked orassociated with the rewritable state Valid-I. It is understood that theabove are merely a few illustrative examples to which the disclosedsubject matter is not limited.

In various embodiments, the garbage collection process, either full orpartial may be employed with any dual-program flash memory, and is notlimited to the specific encoding scheme described above. Wherein theterm “dual-program” refers to a erasure-based memory than can be writtento, at the same physical address, at least twice without an interveningerase operation.

Likewise, the garbage collection process described herein may make moreefficient use of the NVMD space and improve the garbage collectionefficiency. Part of that improved efficiency may include invoking thefull garbage collection less frequently, as a partial garbage collectionmay often be sufficient. It is understood that the above are merely afew illustrative examples to which the disclosed subject matter is notlimited.

FIG. 7 is a schematic block diagram of an information processing system700, which may include semiconductor devices formed according toprinciples of the disclosed subject matter.

Referring to FIG. 7, an information processing system 700 may includeone or more of devices constructed according to the principles of thedisclosed subject matter. In another embodiment, the informationprocessing system 700 may employ or execute one or more techniquesaccording to the principles of the disclosed subject matter.

In various embodiments, the information processing system 700 mayinclude a computing device, such as, for example, a laptop, desktop,workstation, server, blade server, personal digital assistant,smartphone, tablet, and other appropriate computers, etc. or a virtualmachine or virtual computing device thereof. In various embodiments, theinformation processing system 700 may be used by a user (not shown).

The information processing system 700 according to the disclosed subjectmatter may further include a central processing unit (CPU), logic, orprocessor 710. In some embodiments, the processor 710 may include one ormore functional unit blocks (FUBs) or combinational logic blocks (CLBs)715. In such an embodiment, a combinational logic block may includevarious Boolean logic operations (e.g., NAND, NOR, NOT, XOR, etc.),stabilizing logic devices (e.g., flip-flops, latches, etc.), other logicdevices, or a combination thereof. These combinational logic operationsmay be configured in simple or complex fashion to process input signalsto achieve a desired result. It is understood that while a fewillustrative examples of synchronous combinational logic operations aredescribed, the disclosed subject matter is not so limited and mayinclude asynchronous operations, or a mixture thereof. In oneembodiment, the combinational logic operations may comprise a pluralityof complementary metal oxide semiconductors (CMOS) transistors. Invarious embodiments, these CMOS transistors may be arranged into gatesthat perform the logical operations; although it is understood thatother technologies may be used and are within the scope of the disclosedsubject matter.

The information processing system 700 according to the disclosed subjectmatter may further include a volatile memory 720 (e.g., a Random AccessMemory (RAM), etc.). The information processing system 700 according tothe disclosed subject matter may further include a non-volatile memory730 (e.g., a hard drive, an optical memory, a NAND or Flash memory,etc.). In some embodiments, either the volatile memory 720, thenon-volatile memory 730, or a combination or portions thereof may bereferred to as a “storage medium”. In various embodiments, the volatilememory 720 and/or the non-volatile memory 730 may be configured to storedata in a semi-permanent or substantially permanent form.

In various embodiments, the information processing system 700 mayinclude one or more network interfaces 740 configured to allow theinformation processing system 700 to be part of and communicate via acommunications network. Examples of a Wi-Fi protocol may include, butare not limited to, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers(IEEE) 802.11g, IEEE 802.11n, etc. Examples of a cellular protocol mayinclude, but are not limited to: IEEE 802.16m (a.k.a. Wireless-MAN(Metropolitan Area Network) Advanced), Long Term Evolution (LTE)Advanced), Enhanced Data rates for GSM (Global System for MobileCommunications) Evolution (EDGE), Evolved High-Speed Packet Access(HSPA+), etc. Examples of a wired protocol may include, but are notlimited to, IEEE 802.3 (a.k.a. Ethernet), Fibre Channel, Power Linecommunication (e.g., HomePlug, IEEE 1901, etc.), etc. It is understoodthat the above are merely a few illustrative examples to which thedisclosed subject matter is not limited.

The information processing system 700 according to the disclosed subjectmatter may further include a user interface unit 750 (e.g., a displayadapter, a haptic interface, a human interface device, etc.). In variousembodiments, this user interface unit 750 may be configured to eitherreceive input from a user and/or provide output to a user. Other kindsof devices can be used to provide for interaction with a user as well;for example, feedback provided to the user can be any form of sensoryfeedback, e.g., visual feedback, auditory feedback, or tactile feedback;and input from the user can be received in any form, including acoustic,speech, or tactile input.

In various embodiments, the information processing system 700 mayinclude one or more other devices or hardware components 760 (e.g., adisplay or monitor, a keyboard, a mouse, a camera, a fingerprint reader,a video processor, etc.). It is understood that the above are merely afew illustrative examples to which the disclosed subject matter is notlimited.

The information processing system 700 according to the disclosed subjectmatter may further include one or more system buses 705. In such anembodiment, the system bus 705 may be configured to communicativelycouple the processor 710, the volatile memory 720, the non-volatilememory 730, the network interface 740, the user interface unit 750, andone or more hardware components 760. Data processed by the processor 710or data inputted from outside of the non-volatile memory 730 may bestored in either the non-volatile memory 730 or the volatile memory 720.

In various embodiments, the information processing system 700 mayinclude or execute one or more software components 770. In someembodiments, the software components 770 may include an operating system(OS) and/or an application. In some embodiments, the OS may beconfigured to provide one or more services to an application and manageor act as an intermediary between the application and the varioushardware components (e.g., the processor 710, a network interface 740,etc.) of the information processing system 700. In such an embodiment,the information processing system 700 may include one or more nativeapplications, which may be installed locally (e.g., within thenon-volatile memory 730, etc.) and configured to be executed directly bythe processor 710 and directly interact with the OS. In such anembodiment, the native applications may include pre-compiled machineexecutable code. In some embodiments, the native applications mayinclude a script interpreter (e.g., C shell (csh), AppleScript,AutoHotkey, etc.) or a virtual execution machine (VM) (e.g., the JavaVirtual Machine, the Microsoft Common Language Runtime, etc.) that areconfigured to translate source or object code into executable code whichis then executed by the processor 710.

The semiconductor devices described above may be encapsulated usingvarious packaging techniques. For example, semiconductor devicesconstructed according to principles of the disclosed subject matter maybe encapsulated using any one of a package on package (POP) technique, aball grid arrays (BGAs) technique, a chip scale packages (CSPs)technique, a plastic leaded chip carrier (PLCC) technique, a plasticdual in-line package (PDIP) technique, a die in waffle pack technique, adie in wafer form technique, a chip on board (COB) technique, a ceramicdual in-line package (CERDIP) technique, a plastic metric quad flatpackage (PMQFP) technique, a plastic quad flat package (PQFP) technique,a small outline package (SOIC) technique, a shrink small outline package(SSOP) technique, a thin small outline package (TSOP) technique, a thinquad flat package (TQFP) technique, a system in package (SIP) technique,a multi-chip package (MCP) technique, a wafer-level fabricated package(WFP) technique, a wafer-level processed stack package (WSP) technique,or other technique as will be known to those skilled in the art.

Method steps may be performed by one or more programmable processorsexecuting a computer program to perform functions by operating on inputdata and generating output. Method steps also may be performed by, andan apparatus may be implemented as, special purpose logic circuitry,e.g., an FPGA (field programmable gate array) or an ASIC(application-specific integrated circuit).

In various embodiments, a computer readable medium may includeinstructions that, when executed, cause a device to perform at least aportion of the method steps. In some embodiments, the computer readablemedium may be included in a magnetic medium, optical medium, othermedium, or a combination thereof (e.g., CD-ROM, hard drive, a read-onlymemory, a flash drive, etc.). In such an embodiment, the computerreadable medium may be a tangibly and non-transitorily embodied articleof manufacture.

While the principles of the disclosed subject matter have been describedwith reference to example embodiments, it will be apparent to thoseskilled in the art that various changes and modifications may be madethereto without departing from the spirit and scope of these disclosedconcepts. Therefore, it should be understood that the above embodimentsare not limiting, but are illustrative only. Thus, the scope of thedisclosed concepts are to be determined by the broadest permissibleinterpretation of the following claims and their equivalents, and shouldnot be restricted or limited by the foregoing description. It is,therefore, to be understood that the appended claims are intended tocover all such modifications and changes as fall within the scope of theembodiments.

What is claimed is:
 1. An apparatus comprising: a memory to store amapping table, wherein the mapping table indicates a rewriteable stateof a plurality of memory addresses; an erasure-based, non-volatilememory configured to store information, at respective memory addresses,in an encoded format, wherein the encoded format includes more bits thanthe an unencoded version of the information and wherein the encodedformat allows the information be over-written, at least once, without anintervening erase operation; and a processor to perform garbagecollection based, at least in part upon, the rewriteable stateassociated with the respective memory addresses.
 2. The apparatus ofclaim 1, wherein the processor is configured to: select a victim blockof memory addresses; determine if, within the victim block, at least onememory address is associated with a rewriteable state that does notrequire an intervening erase operation; and if so, copy the informationstored at the at least one memory address to a memory address outside ofthe victim block.
 3. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein the mapping tablewithin the memory is configured to: after the information has beencopied from the at least one memory address, indicate that the at leastone memory address is free.
 4. The apparatus of claim 3, wherein theprocessor is configured to: receive a write command, wherein the writecommand includes information in a format other than the encoded format;and store the information, in the encoded format, in at least one of theat least one memory addresses.
 5. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein theprocessor is configured to: copy the information stored at the at leastone memory address to a memory address that is associated with arewriteable state that does not require an intervening erase operation.6. The apparatus of claim 2, wherein the processor is configured to:select a target memory address based upon the target memory addressesrewriteable state, wherein the processor prefers a target memory addressassociated with a rewriteable state that does not require an interveningerase operation; and copy the information stored at the at least onememory address to the target memory address.
 7. The apparatus of claim2, wherein the processor is configured to: if no memory addresses,within the victim block, are associated with a rewriteable state thatdoes not require an intervening erase operation, erasing the memoryaddresses included within the victim block.
 8. The apparatus of claim 1,wherein the processor is configured to: select a victim block of memoryaddresses; determine if partial garbage collection may be perform on atleast a portion of the victim block; if so, marking the portion of thevictim block as free; and if not, erasing the entire victim block.
 9. Asystem comprising: a processor configured to transmit memory commands toan erasure-based, non-volatile memory device; and the erasure-based,non-volatile memory device is configured to perform, to a single targetphysical memory address, a first and at least a second write commandswithout an intervening erase operation, wherein the erasure-based,non-volatile memory device comprises: a non-volatile memory configuredto: store the information, at respective memory addresses, in an encodedformat, wherein the encoded format includes more bits than the anunencoded version of the information and wherein the encoded formatallows the information be over-written, at least once, without anintervening erase operation, and update, as part of performing eachwrite command, a rewritable state associated with a respective physicalmemory address; and an internal processor configured to: perform garbagecollection based, at least in part upon, the rewriteable stateassociated with the respective memory addresses.
 10. The system of claim9, wherein the internal processor is configured to: select a victimblock of memory addresses; determine if, within the victim block, atleast one memory address is associated with a rewriteable state thatdoes not require an intervening erase operation; and if so, copy theinformation stored at the at least one memory address to a memoryaddress outside of the victim block.
 11. The system of claim 10, whereinthe non-volatile memory is configured to: after the information has beencopied from the victim block's at least one memory address, indicatethat the at least one memory address is free.
 12. The system of claim11, wherein the erasure-based, non-volatile memory device is configuredto: receive a write command, wherein the write command includesinformation in a format other than the encoded format; and store theinformation, in the encoded format, in at least one of the victimblock's at least one memory addresses.
 13. The system of claim 10,wherein the erasure-based, non-volatile memory device is configured to:copy the information stored at the at least one memory address to amemory address that is associated with a rewriteable state that does notrequire an intervening erase operation.
 14. The system of claim 10,wherein the erasure-based, non-volatile memory device is configured to:select a target memory address based upon the target memory addressesrewriteable state, wherein the processor prefers a target memory addressassociated with a rewriteable state that does not require an interveningerase operation; and copy the information stored at the at least onememory address to the target memory address.
 15. The system of claim 10,wherein the erasure-based, non-volatile memory device is configured to:if no memory addresses, within the victim block, are associated with arewriteable state that does not require an intervening erase operation,erasing the memory addresses included within the victim block.
 16. Thesystem of claim 9, wherein the erasure-based, non-volatile memory deviceis configured to: select a victim block of memory addresses; determineif partial garbage collection may be perform on at least a portion ofthe victim block; if so, marking the portion of the victim block asfree; and if not, erasing the entire victim block.
 17. A methodcomprising: storing information, at respective memory addresses withinerasure-based, non-volatile memory, in an encoded format, wherein theencoded format includes more bits than the an unencoded version of theinformation and wherein the encoded format allows the information beover-written, at least once, without an intervening erase operation;selecting a victim block of memory addresses to perform at least partialgarbage collection upon; determining if, within the victim block, atleast one memory address is associated with a rewriteable state thatdoes not require an intervening erase operation; and if so, copying theinformation stored at the victim block's at least one memory address toa second memory address outside of the victim block.
 18. The method ofclaim 17, wherein the encoded format allows the information beover-written according to a binary tree that dictates that theinformation may be over-written from a first encoded value to one ofeither the first encoded value or a predefined, based upon the firstencoded value, second encoded value; and after the information has beencopied from the at least one memory address, indicating that the atleast one memory address is free.
 19. The method of claim 17, furthercomprising: receiving a write command, wherein the write commandincludes information in a format other than the encoded format; andstoring the information, in the encoded format, in at least one of thevictim block's at least one memory addresses.
 20. The method of claim17, wherein copying comprises copying the information stored at the atleast one memory address to a memory address that is associated with arewriteable state that does not require an intervening erase operation.